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During the Modern Era in European history, the Traditionalist Jewish civilization of Europe that had evolved over many centuries went into deep crisis. The new political, social, and intellectual realities which characterized Modernity seriously challenged, overwhelmed, and indeed threatened to destroy the Jewish Traditionalist culture and society. In response, different Traditionalist thinkers and communities evolved a number of strategies for surviving in a modern environment, strategies that unexpectedly transformed Traditionalism into something different, which came to be called Orthodox Judaism. This course explores this process of transformation, which has had an important impact on Jewish life in the modern and post-modern eras. Cross-listed with Jewish Studies.