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The graduate seminar surveys scholarly literature regarding the emergence and evolution of the environment as a concept or a perspective in modern life sciences since the mid-nineteenth century. From the physiological “milieu interieur” to the rise of ecology, from toxicology to epigenetics, it explored what social forces have shaped scientific understandings regarding what constitute an organism and its relevant environment, and how individual organisms became integrated, alienated, or became tools for research along with these understandings.